1. INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most consumed and cultivated vegetables globally, valued for its nutritional content and culinary versatility. The economic significance of tomato cultivation underscores the importance of maximizing yields to meet the increasing demand for this crop. Factors such as climate change, soil degradation, and pest pressures pose challenges to traditional farming practices, necessitating the adoption of innovative strategies to optimize production. Tomato production organizations are seeking innovative management solutions that make extensive use of high-productivity hybrids with better nutritional value [1]. Improving yield attributing characters, such as fruit size, weight, and number per plant, can significantly impact the overall productivity of tomato crops. In the quest for sustainable agricultural practices, the utilization of organic inputs such as seaweed extracts and micronutrients has gained attention due to their ability to improve crop productivity and quality. They are essential for adequate growth and optimum yield, as plants require a proper balance of all essential nutrients [2].
Seaweed extracts, derived from marine algae are rich sources of bioactive compounds, growth regulators, and nutrients that can stimulate plant growth and development. These extracts have been proclaimed to enhance nutrient uptake, improve stress tolerance, and boost crop yields in various plant species, as it determined a 23.7% increase in tomato yield compared to control [3]. Foliar application of brown seaweed extracts increases the number of flower buds, flowers, and fruits in treated tomato plants [4]. Similarly, Kendal Root, a biostimulant containing Ascophyllum nodosum and plant extracts, significantly improved tomato yield traits, including fruit number, yield per plant, and yield per hectare, when applied at 5.0 l ha−1 [5]. The incorporation of biostimulants in crop production is a sustainable approach that boosts the productivity of crops while minimizing environmental impact [6]. Similarly, micronutrients, essential elements required in small quantities for plant growth, play vital roles in enzyme activation, photosynthesis, and overall plant metabolism. Adequate boron levels are crucial for pollen germination, fruit set, and increasing yield potential in tomatoes. Its deficiency can reduce the nutrient uptake, i.e., nitrogen, potassium, and calcium, impacting overall plant health and yield [7]. Zinc plays a vital role in improving flower setting, fertilization, and fruit development in crops like tomatoes, a 27.6% increase in fruit yield over control was observed with the conjoint application of Zn and B (2.0 kg ha−1) [8,9].
Seaweed extracts and micronutrients hold significant implications for sustainable agriculture by offering a holistic approach to enhancing tomato production through organic means [10,11]. The combination of seaweed extracts and micronutrients can present a promising avenue for enhancing the net returns of tomato cultivation. This study highlights the potential role of seaweed extracts and micronutrients in enhancing flowering and supporting sustainable practices in horticulture. By leveraging the synergistic effects of these organic inputs, it is possible to optimize plant growth, increase nutrient assimilation, and improve yield-attributing characteristics in tomatoes. By elucidating the potential benefits of seaweed extracts and micronutrients in improving yield-attributing characteristics, this study contributes to the development of eco-friendly farming practices that promote both environmental stewardship and economic prosperity. The findings of this research can guide farmers, agronomists, and policymakers in adopting innovative strategies to optimize tomato cultivation and secure food production in a changing agricultural landscape.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1. Experimental Area
The current study was conducted at Lovely Professional University, Punjab (India), School of Agriculture, Horticulture Research Farm. The longitude 75?23′03.02 E and latitude 31?22′31.81′N with an altitude of 252 m, which is located under the central plains of the agro climate zone of Punjab, India. The average annual rainfall is about 686 mm. The temperature range observed during the growing season was between 48°C and 6°C, respectively, and relative humidity varied between 60% to 85%.
2.2. Experimental Material
Two open-field hybrid varieties of tomato were used viz., 1. Tomato no. 575: Red-colored variety with an average yield of 40–50 t ha−1. 2. Yellow Jubilee: yellow-colored variety with an average yield of 50–60 t ha−1. Seaweed extract of A. nodosum obtained from “Biovita” was used as a biostimulant. Zinc (Zn) and boron (B) were used as micronutrients in the form of zinc sulfate monohydrate (33%) and boron (20%).
2.3. Experimental Details
A factorial experiment with two factors viz., factor 1: 12 treatment sprays with seaweed extract (Ascophyllum nodosum) and micronutrients (B and Zn) in all possible combinations and factor 2: two varieties, as given in Table 1. All the treatments were replicated thrice to reduce the error. Each treatment consists of 30 plants per replication which were planted on ridges in 3 rows, i.e., 10 plants in each row. Spacing was maintained at 60 × 30 cm within rows and plants, respectively.
2.4. Treatment Applications
Treatment sprays were prepared according to the concentrations given in Table 1 using water as solvent. ANSE @ 0.2% (2 ml/l) and ANSE @ 0.4% (4 ml/l), Zn @ 0.2% (6.06 g/l), and B @ 0.2% (10 g/l). Foliar application of the prepared solutions was done thrice at the interval of 15 days, i.e., 15, 30, and 45 days after transplanting, respectively.
 | Table 1. Details of factor with their abbreviations and complete composition. [Click here to view] |
2.5. Yield Attributes
The crop was transplanted in the main experimental field with a proper layout in the last fortnight of February and the first picking was taken in the second week of June till three consecutive pickings. Observation for yield parameters was taken from five randomly tagged competitive plants under each treatment and the average was noted. Yield/plant (kg) and Average fruit weight (g) was measured using a digital weighing balance and noted in grams and kgs, whereas Average Yield/ha (t) was calculated manually using yield per plant and noted in metric tonnes. Fruit diameter (cm) (equitorial and polar) was taken using a digital vernier calliper and noted in cm. The number of Fruits/plant and Locules/fruit were counted manually from the tagged plants and horizontally cut fruit after harvesting, respectively. The Harvest duration for crops under each treatment was observed by noting the number of days from the first harvest to the last harvest and mentioned in days.
2.6. Economic Attributes
The economics of crop production involves optimizing financial aspects by managing input costs and revenues to ensure profitability which depends on crop yield and market prices. The following aspects were observed in consideration to work out the economics of the crop using the methods mentioned by Akubo et al. [12]
Cost of cultivation (?): The cost of cultivation for each treatment combination was calculated separately based on the price of all fixed as well as variable inputs (seed, fertilizer, labor, irrigation, and land cost) during the experimental year.
Gross return (?): The gross returns (?/ha) were estimated on the basis of the wholesale market price of tomato in the experimental year, which was ?17 for V1 (Tomato no. 575) and ? 23 for V2 (Yellow jubilee).
Gross return = Yield of crop (kg) × Market price of the crop (?/kg)
Net returns (?): The net returns were calculated by deducting the total cost of cultivation from the gross return.
Net income (?/ha) =Gross income (?/ha) – Cost of cultivation (?/ha)
 | Table 2. Effects of seaweed extract and micronutrient on yield attributes of the tomato. [Click here to view] |
Benefit-cost ratio (B:C): It indicates the returns the farmer will get on per rupee invested. It is the ratio of net returns to the total cost of cultivation.
 | Figure 1. In field pictures of varieties Tomato no. 575 (a) and Yellow Jubilee (b); Average fruit weight (g) under treatment T12 for both the varieties tomato no. 575 (c) and Yellow Jubilee (d). [Click here to view] |
2.7. Statistical Analysis
The experimental data was analyzed using two-way ANOVA with R software and results were stated at a 5% level of significance (p = 0.05), after the testing normality assumptions of variance using Shapiro-Wilk normality test. Duncan’s multiple range test was applied to check the significance of means. Pearson’s Linear Correlation analysis was performed to find out the relation among yield and net returns.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Yield Attributes
When the yield attributing characters were evaluated, the results revealed that the applied treatment sprays consisting of A. nodosum extract and micronutrient had a significant positive effect on the studied varieties and their yield attributing characters in comparison to control (T1). The impact of foliar spray of A. nodosum extract along with micronutrients B and Zn on yield parameters of tomato is presented in Table 2. As per the results presented in Table 2 the polar and equatorial diameter of fruit (7.13 cm and 7.014 cm) significantly increased with the application of T12 (Zn @ 0.2% + B @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.4%) among all the applied treatments and showed an increase in polar and equatorial diameter as compared to control, respectively, similar results were observed for the average weight of fruit (184.05 g), fruits/plant (30.20), yield/plant (2.76 kg), average yield/ha (102.22 t) and harvest duration (24.20 days) whereas, the highest number of locules/fruit (5.77) were observed in Treatment T7 (Zn @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.2%).
As for both the studied varieties, the maximum significant positive results for polar and equatorial diameter of fruit (65.16 and 61.20 cm), number of locules/fruit (5.71), average weight of fruit (153.82 g), fruits/plant (26.64), yield/plant (2.26 kg), average yield/ha (83.90 t), and harvest duration (27.73 days) were observed in variety V2 (Yellow Jubilee).
 | Figure 2. Results for economic characteristics of tomato crop with the application of seaweed extract and micronutrients. [Click here to view] |
 | Figure 3. Pearson correlation heatmap of yield and economics of tomato plants treated with seaweed extract and micronutrients (PD: Polar Diameter; ED: Equitorial Diameter; NL: Number of locules/fruit; NFP: Number of fruits/plant; AFW: Average fruit weight; YP: Yield/plant; AYH: Average Yield/ha; HD: Harvest duration; TCC: Cost of Cultivation; GMR: Gross Return; NMR: Net Returns; BCR: Benefit Cost Ratio). [Click here to view] |
The highest positive results for all the yield attributing characters were obtained in variety V2 when treated with foliar spray of treatment T12, i.e., T12V2 [(Zn @ 0.2% + B @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.4%) + (Yellow Jubilee)] recorded polar and equitorial diameter of fruit (7.58 and 7.29 cm), the average weight of fruit (237.99 g) (Fig. 1a and b), fruits/plant (31.22), yield/plant (2.88 kg), average yield/ha (106.92 t), and harvest duration (24.28 days), respectively, compared to all the studied treatment combinations. But the maximum number of locules/fruit (5.77) were observed in treatment T7V2 [(Zn @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.2%) + ((Yellow Jubilee)].
3.2. Economic Attributes
Economic attributes of the crop were also affected by the foliar spray of seaweed extract along with micronutrients, results for the same are presented in Figure 2a–d. The average wholesale selling price of tomato for V1 is about 17 ?/kg and for V2 is about 23 ?/kg. It was found that a profit of 6 ?/kg was obtained from the variety V2 as compared to V1. As per the results interpreted in graphs presented in Figure 2a–d the highest gross return (24,59,160 ?/ha) and net return (20,34,385 ?/ha) were observed with a variety V2 (Yellow jubilee) with treatment spray T12 (Zn @ 0.2% + B @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.4%). It was observed that there was a 228.56% difference in terms of net profitability between the treatment combination T12V2 with the highest net return (20,34,385 ?/ha) and the treatment combination T1V1 with the least net return (6,19,175/ha). Which resulted in the high incremental benefit-cost ratio in treatment combination T12V2 [(Zn @ 0.2% + B @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.4%) + (Yellow Jubilee)] (4.79) followed by treatment T11V2 [(Zn @ 0.2% + B @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.2%) + (Yellow Jubilee)] (4.52).
3.3. Correlation Between Yield and Economics
As per the results shown in Figure 3 all the tomato yield attributes showed high significant positive Pearson’s linear correlation values among each other. A maximum significant positive correlation was observed between gross return, net return, benefit cost ratio, and yield/plant (1.00). Among these yield per plant showed a better correlation with a number of fruits/plant (0.99) and Harvest duration (0.99). No variables among all the studied characters were negatively correlated with each other.
4. DISCUSSION
The findings demonstrated that seaweed extract (A. nodosum) in combination with micronutrients zinc and boron has a significant potential to enhance yield components, promote plant growth, and support its biostimulant actions when used in agricultural crops.
Our results were consistent with the results reported by earlier studies consisting of the application of seaweed extract [13,14]. These benefits are primarily attributable to its rich bioactive compound composition [10]. Seaweed extracts include a significant amount of hormones that boost plant growth, such as auxin, gibberellin, and cytokinin. These hormones activate the plant’s metabolic pathways, resulting in increased growth, flowering, and fruit setting [11]. Another mechanism related to SWE are reduction of oxidative stress leading to increased antioxidant activity which results in increased plant yield [13].
The seaweeds particularly derived from brown seaweed contain beneficial compounds such as cytokinins, Auxins, and ABA that promote plant growth and development [15]. It comprehensively improves the plant yield metrics such as days to flowering, number of fruits per plant, fruit polar and equatorial diameter, individual fruit weight, and overall yield per hectare, which translates to higher yield and productivity [16]. This enhanced yield is primarily due to the improved growth due to the compounds present in seaweed extracts which results in improved leaf photosynthesis and overall plant health which results in more fruit production. Seaweed extracts also encourage beneficial microbial colonization in the rhizosphere which solubilizes nutrients and promotes their uptake by the plant, which boosts assimilate production and yield [17]. This improved yield is a result of increased hormone activity in plants [18]. When tomato plants were treated with A. nodosum extract, similar outcomes for increased fruit size and number of fruits per plant were also noted [11,16,19–21].
In addition to yield enhancement, seaweed extracts also positively influenced the physical characteristics of tomatoes, such as fruit hardness, which can reduce post-harvest losses. Furthermore, these extracts were noted to shorten the ripening time of tomatoes, allowing for better market timing and increased economic returns for growers [15]. Yao et al. [15] reported a 10.2% and 19.8% increase in fruit hardness as compared to control when plants were applied with 60 and 90 kg/ha of seaweed extract. It also enhances the quality by improving fruit size and sweetness commanding a higher price in the market and reducing the ripening period which allows the farmer to coincide with peak market prices resulting in maximizing economic returns. Similar findings were also observed by Hernández-Herrera et al. [22].
Similarly, zinc and boron are essential micronutrients that play critical roles in tomato cultivation. Zinc is vital for several physiological functions, including hormone production and enzyme activity, which are crucial for growth and development. It has been shown to improve disease resistance and overall yield. As per the results reported by Osman et al. [23], the application of zinc can lead to a 20% to 30% increase in the yield of various crops including tomatoes. Whereas, boron impacts tomato plants by regulating flower and fruit sets which directly influences the yield. Adequate boron levels help control flower and fruit shedding thereby contributing to higher yields [6].
Zinc and boron positively affect various yield-contributing traits in tomatoes, including flowering, fruit set, fruit weight, fruit size, and overall yield. The optimal application of these micronutrients can lead to significant improvements in both yield and fruit quality, making them essential for successful tomato cultivation. They promote early flowering, and increase the number of flower clusters, fruit sets, and individual fruit weight also known as critical factors in determining yield, which results in more number of fruits and an extended fruiting period leading to improved yield. As per the results obtained by Osman et al. [23], the combined application of zinc and boron has been shown to yield up to 83.50 tons per hectare, demonstrating their effectiveness in enhancing overall productivity. Similar results were also obtained by Ali et al. [6] and Ullah et al. [24].
The application of zinc and boron significantly boosts tomato yield and quality, leading to enhanced economic returns for growers. The optimal use of these micronutrients not only improves productivity but also offers a favorable benefit-cost ratio, making it a valuable practice in tomato cultivation. In a study reported by Sandilya et al. [25], the economic analysis of the application of zinc and boron indicated a higher benefit-cost ratio as compared to the control. the increased yield and quality lead to higher market prices further enhancing the net return. The additional investment in micronutrients increased yield and quality leading to better profit for farmers by reducing the need for more expensive fertilizers which reduced the production cost [6,26].
The combined application of seaweed extract (A. nodosum) with micronutrients zinc and boron has shown significant potential to enhance tomato yield and economic returns. Seaweed extract enhances plant growth, flowering, and fruit setting through its rich bioactive compound composition, including hormones such as auxin, gibberellin, and cytokinin, which boost metabolic pathways and reduce oxidative stress [27]. Zinc and boron further enhance these effects by improving physiological functions, disease resistance, and fruit set [6]. This synergistic combination not only increases overall yield, fruit size, and sweetness but also shortens ripening time, leading to better market timing and higher economic returns for growers. The combined use of these biostimulants and micronutrients thus offers a favorable benefit-cost ratio, making it a valuable practice for maximizing productivity and profitability in tomato cultivation.
5. CONCLUSION
Our findings revealed that the foliar treatment of a mixture of seaweed extract from brown seaweed A. nodosum, boron, and zinc boosted tomato fruit setting and production which helped in improved net returns and benefit-cost ratio, however, significant effects were observed in T12 (Zn @ 0.2% + B @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.4%). The results indicate that foliar spray of seaweed extract and micronutrients in various combinations notably enhanced the yield attributing characters such as average fruit weight, number of locules/fruit, fruits/plant, yield plant−1, as well as yield ha−1. Among all treatments, T12V2 [(Zn @ 0.2% + B @ 0.2% + ANSE @ 0.4%) + (Yellow Jubilee)] exhibited a considerable increase in all the yield attributing characters which were found significantly correlated to net returns and benefit-cost ratio, directly affecting the net returns and benefit-cost ratio. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that utilizing the combination of seaweed extract and micronutrients could be an effective strategy to increase the production of tomato crops, which can lead to better returns for the growers. However, further investigation is required to completely comprehend the pathways via which biostimulants influence tomato plants.
6. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Author Contributions: All authors made substantial contributions to conception and design, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; took part in drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; agreed to submit to the current journal; gave final approval of the version to be published; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. All the authors are eligible to be an author as per the international committee of medical journal editors (ICMJE) requirements/guidelines.
7. FUNDING
The current study did not receive grants from any public and commercial funding agencies or non-profit sectors.
8. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors report no financial or any other conflicts of interest in this work.
9. DATA AVAILABILITY
All the datasets generated and utilized in analysis are included in the article.
10. ETHICAL APPROVAL
This study has no involvement in experiments conducted on animal and human subjects.
11. PUBLISHER’S NOTE
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. This journal remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliation.
12. USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)-ASSISTED TECHNOLOGY
The authors declares that they have not used artificial intelligence (AI)-tools for writing and editing of the manuscript, and no images were manipulated using AI.
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