1. INTRODUCTION
Persea americana, commonly known as avocado, is a versatile fruit tree native to Central and South America. Beyond its culinary value, avocado boasts a rich history of traditional medicinal use in various cultures. It is represented worldwide by several varieties, mainly the Mexican (P. americana var. drymifolia), Antillean (P. americana var. americana), and Guatemalan (P. americana var. guatemalensis) [1-4]. African descriptions of P. Americana include other names such as Alligator pear, avocado, butter, avokado (Afrikaans and English), mparachichi, mpea, mwembe, mafuta (Swahili), Maluma (Zulu), Paya (Ghana-Twi), and Pia (Yoruba). Other common names in the world are include htaw bat and kyese (Burmese), zaboka (Creole), avocat, avocatier, zabelbok and zaboka (French), alligatorbirne, avocadobirne (German), adpukat, avocado (Indonesian), avôkaa (Khmer), apukado, avocado (Malay), avocado (Mandinka), bata (Pidgin English), awokado (Thai), medang (Trade name), and bo, lê dâù (Vietnamese) [5]. It is botanically classified as belonging to the Plantae Kingdom; Laurales Order; Family Lauraceae; Genus Persea; and species Americana. It is commonly grown in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The leaf of the plant is shiny and green, with a bell-shaped (green/brown) fruit [6]. The morphological characteristics of P. americana include the woody and green stem with an approximate size of 3–5 meters in height, in addition to elliptical and elongated leaves and the obovate-narrow/ellipsoid shape of the fruit, with an average peel thickness equal to 1.11 mm average. Morpho–anatomy studies also report the following average values: 118.48 cm2 leaf area, 458.59 g fruit weight, 84.34 mm fruit diameter, 117.74 mm fruit length, 261.36 g pulp weight, and 58.0 g seed weight [7-9].
Regarding its traditional use, in South America, the seed extract is used as a hypocholesterolemic, hypotensive, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory, while avocado oil (seeds) is used for dermatological applications and it is reported that its unsaponifiable portion has beneficial effects against osteoarthritis [10]. On the other hand, in the African continent, leaf extracts are commonly used in ethnomedicinal practices by local communities in the management of diabetes, hypertension, malaria, and other diseases, without any documented side effects except for dizziness and in alone cases of malaria treatment in Ivory Coast. In addition, the leaves are used for hypertension, diabetes, malaria, thyroid, diarrhea, cough, sedative, and antibacterial, the seeds and bark for tooth pain, stem bark and leaves for malaria, the seeds for skin diseases, while the leaves and fruits are indicated for constipation, kidney disorders and various types of pain, and the bark is used for syphilis [6].
Due to the nutritional composition, its antioxidants, and biochemical profile, avocado is considered a superfood that has gained substantial popularity and acceptance, so it presents important health benefits [1,11]. Furthermore, avocado fruits are rich in bioactive compounds that can be used in functional food applications [12]. Avocado pulp is widely consumed as a primary food source, while the seed is often discarded. However, the seed exhibits high antioxidant activity and inhibits metabolic changes induced by oxidative stress in endothelial cells, suggesting that avocado seed extracts have vasoprotective actions [13]. Furthermore, it was evaluated the use of avocado seed as a possible therapeutic agent in diabetes treatment, enhancing insulin sensitivity and regulating glycolipid metabolism, in addition to showing activity as a putative treatment of pancreatic dysfunction in diabetic patients, with a reduction in serum insulin [14]. Moreover, the whole fruit is rich in biocompounds (pulp, seed, and peel) and has antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, as well as dermatological and other uses [1], in addition to being a plant food rich in nutrients, whose chemicals are of great importance in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries [12]. For example, avocado fatty acids have beneficial effects on risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (CVD), whereas the high content of carotenoids and phenolic compounds exhibit antifungal, anticancer, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities [2]. Still notably, the seven-carbon sugars D-mannoheptulose and perseitol are chemical markers of avocado [15] and present anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory activity [16,17]. Moreover, works from previous reviews report various types of pharmacological activities, such as antimicrobial, including activity against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans, in addition to antidiabetic action by inhibiting enzymes alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase through the administration of the seeds aqueous extract and the phenolic extracts from the leaves and fruits, as well as the protective effect on the liver and kidneys through the administration of the aqueous extract of P. americana leaf, by reducing oxidative stress, and which also include antihypertensive and cholesterol-regulating effects [5].
Overall, P. americana is a fruit crop of economic importance throughout the world, in addition to being a highly studied plant species responsible for pharmacological, antioxidant, dermatological, and anti-cancer effects [1]. The fruit also guarantees biological functions thanks to the considerable amounts of vitamins and other phytonutrients [18], so the global demand for avocados has led to the planting of millions of young plants each year [19]. However, due to the large number of studies on the chemical and medicinal aspects of avocado in a short space of time, periodic compilation and integrated discussion of their contents are necessary, therefore the objective of this work is to chronologically summarize and discuss the recent literary review on studies that report the chemical, pharmacological, and ethnomedicinal activities of P. americana extracts from different ways of preparation and parts of the plant.
2. METHODOLOGY
A comprehensive search of scientific databases was conducted to compile and summarize ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, and pharmacological knowledge on P. americana and its various parts. This included Scopus (n = 62), ScienceDirect (n = 70), and PubMed (n = 194). The search terms focused on the medicinal properties of P. americana, using keywords such as “P. americana” combined with “chemical composition,” or “pharmacological effects,” or “Ethnomedicinal uses,” so that only articles that focused on the topic related to the title of this review were included. Articles published between 2010 and 2024 were included in the study. Some articles in the introduction section, to provide additional information, were included without taking into account the search parameters.
 |
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Traditional Uses and Ethnomedicinal Applications
Table 1 presents the ethnomedicinal use of P. americana, which has various traditional purposes due to its therapeutic properties [20]. The results report that the main route of administration is oral, likewise, they indicate that the leaves, stem, or fruit prepared by decoction are used to treat urinary incontinence [21] and nervousness [22], as well as analgesics [23], in addition to treat malaria [24]. On the other hand, the fruit is consumed fresh or in a salad to treat obesity [25], whereas the topical administration of the fruit in powder form or as maceration helps to treat skin diseases [26] or soften it, in addition to changing its texture, protecting it from sunlight, treating pimples and eliminating spots [27]. Moreover, the infusion of the leaves is used to treat anemia or increase energy [28].
Table 1: Traditional use of
| Route of administration | Traditional use | Plant organ | Way of preparation | Country | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oral | Malaria treatment | Leaves and barks | Decoction/juice extract | Nigeria | [24] |
| Urinary incontinence | Leaves or fruit | Raw or decoction consumed daily | Algeria | [21] | |
| Central nervous system disorders, nervous problems | Leaves, seeds and stem | NR | Central America | [22] | |
| Against nervousness and are used as analgesics | Leaves and bark | Decoction | Central America | [23] | |
| To treat or prevent anemia and increase energy | Leaves | Infusion | Zambia | [28] | |
| Obesity treatment | Leaves and Fruits | It is consumed fresh, in a salad after having let it ferment | Central America | [25] | |
| Topical | Skin diseases | Fruit | Powder | Morocco | [26] |
| Soften skin, change skin texture, protection from sunlight, treating pimples, removing spots | Fruit | Maceration | South Africa | [27] |
Traditional use of Persea americana depending on route of administration
3.2. Chemical Composition
Table 2 shows the chemical composition of P. americana, observing that the fruit contains procyanidin B2 [29], naringenin, rutin [30], and 60% monounsaturated fatty acids, presenting the oleic acid as the major fatty acid [31]. In addition, it was found that 16 to 32% of oil from the pulp [32,33]. The lineoic acid, palmitoleic acid [33], besides omega-6 and omega-3 acids also have been identified as major compounds in the fruit. The results indicate that fruit pulp is a good source of useful vegetable oil that can be used in the food industry [34]. On the other hand, the presence of phenolic acid, condensed tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids [35], and sterols [36] are also representative in the fruit, so that 65.55 mg of total polyphenols have been quantified in the seed [29]. Furthermore, the phenolic and carotenoid profile in seeds powder was evaluated, so that benzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, quercetin, and catechin were the most abundant compounds [37]. These results indicate that the seed could be used as a source of phenolic compounds for the manufacture of foods to improve their antioxidant and nutraceutical capacity [29,35]. In its turn, the starch extracted from the seed can be applied for the preparation of edible or biodegradable films, in the same way as the fruit peel [38]. Still, the volatile profile of raw and roasted avocado kernels presented ester as major compounds, while high molecular weight alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons also were important in their composition, so that the nutritional and organoleptic characteristics have been maintained after the roasting process [39]. Furthermore, anthocyanins as well as procyanidins, flavonols, hydroxybenzoic, and hydroxycinnamic acids have been also identified [36,40]. The study of Miñón–Hernández et al. also identified the following bioactive phenols in the peel: Quercetin, naringenin, catechin, cyanidin 3-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-rhamnoside, hydroxydelphinidin, eugenol, and estragole [41]. In a phytochemical and pharmacological study of P. americana collected in Nigeria, the leaves used in local ethnomedicine for tumor-related problems contain alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, terpenes, and steroids [42], while other study from the same country also demonstrated phlobatannins and anthraquinones in the leaves [43]. Other study on leaves chemical composition showed that the hexane fraction from leaves reports steroids and saponins, whereas the ethyl acetate fraction presents the hyperoside (quercetin-3-galactoside), quercetin-3-O-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, cyclopenol, and cytosporin as main phytochemicals [44]. The essential oil composition from leaves according to some cultivars was also evaluated Elosaily et al. described the α-copaene, β-copaene, and β-caryophyllene are common major compounds in the unripe leaves from three analyzed cultivars (Mexican, Fuerte, and Hass), while estragole was the most abundant in Mexican, being found in traces in Fuerte and not found in Hass cultivar [45]. In mature leaves, estragole, 2-(8Z,11Z)-8, 11-heptadecadienyl-furan, or caryophyllene were found as major compounds in seven cultivars [46]. Moreover, it was suggested that ripening significantly increased the content of fats, alkaloids, and saponins, but reduced the carbohydrate content of the seeds, indicating that ripe ones may be a better source of antioxidant compounds due to their higher phytochemical content [47]. Hence, these results confirm the potential of avocado peel as an important source of bioactives applicable in the food, cosmetic, or pharmaceutical sectors [40].
Table 2:
| Plant organ | Chemical composition | Technique used in its determination | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fruit (peel) | Fibers (53.14%), lipids (35.22%), carbohydrates (7.98%) and proteins (0.25%) | Enzymatic-gravimetric method (AOAC 991.43) | [67] |
| fruit (pulp) | Oleic, palmitic, palmitolenic, docosadienoic, tricosanoic, linoleic and palmitoleic acids | NR | [32] |
| Fruit | Monounsaturated fatty acids (60%) | Gas chromatography | [31] |
| Fruit (pulp) | Oleic acid, omega-6/omega-3 ratios | Gas chromatography | [34] |
| Fruit (seed and peel) | Tocopherol | Method of Freitas | |
| Fruit (seed) | Phenolic acid, condensing tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids, fatty acids | Liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry | [29] |
| Fruit | Procyanidin B2 | High pressure liquid chromatography | [35] |
| Fruit (seed) | Total polyphenol content 65.55 mg gallic acid equivalents/g | Folin– Ciocalteu test | |
| Fruit (peel) | Bioactive polyphenols (flavanol quercetin, flavanone naringenin, flavan 3 - Ol catechin, cyanidin 3-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-rhamnoside, hydroxydelphinidin, eugenol and estragole) | Liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry | [41] |
| Fruit | Naringenin and routine | High pressure liquid chromatography | [30] |
| Fruit (pulp) | Oil content 16.2%–32.3% pulp (unsaturated fatty acids: Oleic, linoleic, and palmitoleic) | Gas chromatography | [33] |
| Fruit (peel) | Anthocyanins (between 0.64 and 47 mg/g fresh weight) | Gas chromatography | |
| Fruit (peel) | Procyanidins, flavonols, hydroxybenzoic, and hydroxycinnamic acids | Liquid chromatography coupled to precise ultra-high definition mass spectrometry | [38] |
| Fruit (seed and pulp) | Unsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid) | Gas chromatography | [36] |
| Fruit (seed) | Sterols | Gas chromatography | |
| Fruit (seed) | Starch (Amylose 39.56%) | Loos method | [38] |
| Fruit (seed powder) | Lutein (0.323 mg/100 g), gallic acid (8.82), chlorogenic acid (33.65), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (10.74), caffeic acid (4.42), benzoic acid (138.12), catechin (2.60), epigallocatechin (0.82), rrutinoside-3-O-quercetin (0.40), glycoside-3-O-kaempferol (0.90), quercetin (2.81) | Liquid chromatography coupled to precise ultra-high definition mass spectrometry | [37] |
| Fruit (raw and roasted kernel) | Raw Kernel: ( | Gas chromatography coupled with mass espectrometry | [39] |
| Leaves | Alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, phlobatannins, phenols, anthraquinones, and triterpenes | Thin layer liquid chromatography | [42] |
| Leaves | Alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, terpenes, and steroids | Thin layer liquid chromatography | [43] |
| Leaves | Saponins and steroids (hexane fraction), hyperoside (quercetin-3-galactoside), quercetin-3-O-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, cyclopenol and cytosporin (ethyl acetate fraction) | Thin layer liquid chromatography; high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector | [44] |
| Leaves (unripe) | a-copaene, b-copaene and b-caryophyllene (Mexican, Fuerte, and Hass cultivars), estragole (62.61% in Mexican cultivar) | Gas chromatography coupled with mass espectrometry | [45] |
| Leaves | Estragole (30.04% in Ettinger cultivar and 36.74% in Fuerte), 2-(8Z, 11Z)-8,11-heptadecadienyl-furan (67.37%, 43.61% and 59.9% in Hass, Bacon, and Maluma Hass cultivars, respectively), caryophyllene (36.61% 17.68% in Reed and Zutano cultivars, respectively) | Gas chromatography coupled with mass espectrometry | [46] |
Persea americana chemical composition
3.3. Pharmacological Effects
Table 3 presents the in vivo pharmacological effects of P. americana administered orally. It was found that the main form of preparations is as an extract. One of these studies demonstrated that the avocado peel extract reduces fasting glucose levels, characterizing a hypoglycemic effect [48], and reverses or attenuates the metabolic effects caused by a diet high in sucrose [41]. This occurs due to the polyphenolic compounds that act as antidiabetics [48] such as quercetin, pelargonidin 3-glucoside, hydroxydelphinidin, eugenol, estragole, and especially avocatin B, among others [41]. P. americana is used in natural medicine for the treatment of patients with diabetes mellitus, acting on the enzymes involved in the capture of glucose in the small intestine, and also on the liver enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism. It was observed that the lipid avocatin B have the ability to prevent mitochondria from oxidizing the fatty acids of pancreatic beta cells (lipotoxicity), preventing the death of pancreatic cells [49]. This effect contributes to ensuring that insulin is not lacking and that insulin resistance is reduced and even avoided so that by inhibiting the fatty oxidation, the sensitivity of insulin uptake is improved. Avocatin B also achieves the same effect on skeletal muscle cells, which improves insulin uptake and decreases cellular lipotoxicity [50]. In addition, it could be useful as a remedy for the management of kidney dysfunction associated with Type 2 diabetes [51].
Table 3:
| Plant organ | Way of preparation | Identified substances | Pharmacological effect | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fruit (peel) | Ethanolic extract | Polyphenolic compounds | Hypoglycemic | [48] |
| Fruit (peel) | Ethanolic extract | Bioactive polyphenols (flavanol quercetin, flavanone naringenin, flavan 3- Ol catechin, cyanidin 3-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-rhamnoside, hydroxydelphinidin, eugenol and estragole) | Reverses or attenuates the metabolic effects caused by a high sucrose diet. It is hypoglycemic | [41] |
| Fruit (seed) | Aqueous extract | Avocatin B | Protects against cadmium-induced inflammation and kidney toxicity | [52] |
| Fruit (seed) | Aqueous extract | NR | Antioxidant properties and is hypoglycemic | [14] |
| Fruit (seed) | Ethanol-water extract | Flavonoid (myricetin, luteolin), gallic acid, and ascorbic acid | Improves glomerular filtration rate, with antihemorrhagic effect and erythropoiesis rate in diabetic complications due to streptozotocin toxicity | [51] |
| Leaves | Ethanolic extract | Avocatin B | Reduction of uric acid concentration in blood from 12.3% to 4.3%, great potential as antihyperuricemia | [52] |
| Fruit | Ethanolic extract | Ferulic acid, polyphenols, alkaloids and flavonoid | Anti-inflammatory effect may mitigate cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity | [56] |
| Fruit (seed) | Ethyl acetate fraction of extract | NR | Prevention and treatment of gastric ulcer and cardiovascular diseases | [54] |
| Fruit (seed) | Ethanolic extract | Terpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, sterols, and glycosides | Depressant action on the CNS | [55] |
| Fruit (pulp) | Diluted pulp | Lauric acid, linoleic acid, myristic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid | Anti-inflammatory activity in rat model induced by TNBS | [57] |
| Leaves | Ethanolic extract | Saponins, steroids hyperoside (quercetin-3-galactoside), quercetin-3-O-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, cyclopenol, and cytosporin | Antimalaric activity in mice model | [44] |
| Leaves | Ethanolic extract | Isorhamnetin, luteolin, rutin, quercetin, and apigenin | Antihyperlipemic activity | [62] |
In vivo pharmacological properties of Persea americana administered orally
On the other hand, the seed has properties of antioxidants and antidiabetics [14,52], so that the effects have also been related to the presence of ascorbic acid, myricetin, luteolin, avocatin B, and gallic acid [14]. According to another study, a natural alternative to control glucose levels by a diet considers that P. americana is included in the daily meals of patients with DM2, helping to reduce the consumption of antidiabetic drugs, in addition to promoting weight loss and reducing the lipid and glycemic profile [53]. Moreover, in addition to having cardiovascular effects, P. americana has effects on cholesterol control where oleic fatty acid is rescued, reducing the plasma concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), without causing its oxidation. This fatty acid is the main substrate for acyl-CoA: Cholesterol acyltransferase, a liver enzyme that catalyzes the formation of cholesterol esters from cholesterol. Therefore, the presence of excess cholesterol in its free form is rapidly esterified and does not lead to the suppression of LDL-C receptors and contributes to the absorption of LDL-C, producing a decrease in its plasma concentration. In addition, the avocado seed is used for the treatment or prevention of gastric ulcers, due to the presence of caffeoylquinic acid, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, and tannins [54].
Furthermore, noteworthy is the depressant action on the central nervous system through its seed ethanolic extract in mice, so that the extract at 250–1000 mg/kg dose-dependently leads to a significant reduction in rearing and locomotor activities [55]. Likewise, the reducing effect of the seed against inflammation and renal toxicity induced by cadmium has been reported [48], whereas the fruit has an anti-inflammatory effect that can mitigate the toxicity induced by cyclophosphamide [56]. Besides this, the work of de Oliveira et al. evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity of avocado fruit pulp (5, 10 or 20%) incorporated in the diet of rats, for 21 days before and 7 days after trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced intestinal inflammation. Dietary intervention with avocado fruit pulp (20%) decreased the extension of colonic lesions and weight/length colon ratio, as well as inhibited myeloperoxidase activity, reduced tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β and interferon-gamma levels, and prevented colonic glutathione depletion. Still, the consumption of an enriched diet with 20% avocado pulp by 28 days did not promote any alterations in the biochemical or behavioral parameters evaluated [57]. Furthermore, the reduction of the concentration of uric acid in the blood from 12.3% to 4.3% according to the treatment with avocado leaves demonstrated its great potential as anti-hyperuricemic [58]. Although the molecule involved in these effects has not been determined, this activity could be associated with the presence of bioactive polyphenols present in the fruit [41]. P. americana consists of different phytochemicals and nutrients that have been related to cardiovascular benefits, which is why it is recommended to substitute monounsaturated fatty acids instead of trans fatty acids to prevent both primary and secondary CVD [59,60]. The results presented expand the understanding of avocado for its application as a nutraceutical or biological products due to its beneficial properties for human health [54,14]. This effect is also related to the presence of soluble fibers, which are approximately 30% of the fiber content of avocado, so that they increase the synthesis of bile acids and reduces absorption of cholesterol, reducing cholesterol in the blood [59,61]. Still, the crude ethanolic extract from P. americana leaves demonstrated significant maximal plasmodial inhibition in mice as 52.16 ± 2.77%, and chemo suppression of parasitemia at 64.01 ± 0.08%. In this study, it was also observed that the extracts and fractions of the plants prolonged the survival time of the infected mice, so that the more polar fractions displayed the most active antimalarial effect, corroborating the ethnomedicinal studies in Nigeria, which in turn is a country heavily affected by malaria [44]. Finally, the combination of leaf ethanolic extracts from Annona squamosa L. (EEAS) and P. americana M. (EEPA) has been shown to have antihyperlipidemic activity, which should guarantee the accuracy and consistency of the combination of EEAS and EEPA as antihyperlipidemic treatments, although it is necessary to characterize the secondary metabolites of the plant [62].
Table 4 presents the in vitro pharmacological effects of P. americana. It was found that the leaf has a prominent antioxidant capacity [63] associated with its content of polyphenols [35], mainly flavonoids and phenolic [63]. In addition, the leaves displayed anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activity against the colon cancer cell line (HCT116) and the liver cancer cell line (HePG2), which may be related to its high content of hydrocarbons, sterols, and unsaturated fatty acids [36]. In addition, the ethanolic extract of the fruit evidenced apoptotic activity and therapeutic action on leukemia, which may be related to the content of polyphenols, steroids, triterpenoids, and tannins [64]. Besides this, it was proved that the seed extract inhibits the metabolomic changes induced in endothelial cells, which suggests that it has good vasoprotective actions [13], whereas the pulp and seed have reported antimicrobial activity [30], which may be related to their content of tannins, catechin flavones, and polyphenolic compounds [65]. Finally, the peel methanolic extract displayed notable larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Anopheles stephensi. These findings may indicate that avocado can be considered a promising alternative for combating the transmission of tropical diseases such as dengue, filariasis, and malaria, respectively [66]. The results presented to provide us with information about avocado and its application in the field of medicine [63], but more in vivo investigations are required to confirm the in vitro results described above, in addition to isolation and identification of the molecules in the extracts [64], to optimize their extraction [13].
Table 4:
| Plant organ | Way of preparation | Identified substance | Pharmacological/biological activity | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fruit (seed and peel) | Ethanolic extract | Polyphenol content | Antioxidant | [29] |
| Fruit | Ethanolic extract | NR | Antimicrobial, especially against methicillin-resistant | [30] |
| Fruit (peel) | Ethanolic extract | NR | Antioxidant 53.3–307.3 mmol g/fresh weight) | [33] |
| Fruit (seed) | Ethanolic extract | NR | Anti-inflammatory and anticancer against colon cancer cell line (HCT116) and liver cancer cell line (HePG2) and antioxidant activity | [36] |
| Leaves | Ethanolic extract | Hydrocarbons, sterols and unsaturated fatty acids (“oleic acid”) | Antioxidant | [63] |
| Fruit (pulp and seed) | Ethanolic and aqueous extracts | Phenolic acids and flavonoids | Ethanolic extract: Antimicrobial (104.2–416.7 mg/mL) against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (except | [65] |
| Fruit | Ethanolic extract | Tannins, catechin flavones and polyphenolic compounds | They function as a pro-apoptotic compound and its therapeutic action on leukemia | [64] |
| Fruit (seed) | Extract | Polyphenols, steroids, tripertenoids, tannins | Antioxidant and inhibited metabolomic changes induced by oxidative stress in endothelial cells | [13] |
| Fruit (peel) | Methanolic extract | NR | Larvicide against mosquitoes of the order | [66] |
In vitro pharmacological activities of Persea americana
4. CONCLUSION
P. americana emerges as a plant with a rich historical and scientific basis for its medicinal applications. From traditional uses to contemporary research, evidence suggests a diverse range of health benefits associated with its various bioactive compounds. Further investigations are warranted to fully explore the potential of P. americana for therapeutic applications and its possible inclusion as a functional food to promote human health.
5. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
All authors made substantial contributions to the conception and design, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; took part in drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; agreed to submit to the current journal; gave final approval of the version to be published; and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work. All the authors are eligible to be author as per the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors requirements/guidelines.
6. FUNDING
There is no funding to report.
7. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors report no financial or any other conflicts of interest in this work.
8. ETHICAL APPROVALS
This study does not involve experiments on animals or human subjects.
9. DATA AVAILABILITY
All the data is available with the authors and shall be provided upon request.
10. PUBLISHER’S NOTE
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. This journal remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliation.
11. Use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology
The authors declares that they have not used artificial intelligence (AI)-tools for writing and editing of the manuscript, and no images were manipulated using AI.
REFERENCES
1. Araújo RG, Rodríguez-Jasso RM, Ruiz HA, Pintado MM, Aguilar CN. Avocado by-products:Nutritional and functional properties. Trends Food Sci Technol 2018;80:51-60.
2. Ochoa-Zarzosa A, Báez-Magaña M, Guzmán-Rodríguez JJ, Flores-Alvarez LJ, Lara-Márquez M, Zavala-Guerrero B, et al. Bioactive molecules from native Mexican avocado fruit (Persea americanavar. drymifolia):A review. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2021;76:133-42.[CrossRef]
3. Cruz-Maya ME, Barrientos-Priego AF, Zelaya-Molina LX, Rodríguez-de la OJ, Reyes-Alemán JC. Phylogenetic analysis of some members of the subgenus Persea (Persea, Lauraceae). Rev Chap Ser Hortic 2018;24:133-50.[CrossRef]
4. Missouri Botanical Garden. Persea americana Mill;2024. Available from:https://www.tropicos.org/name/17801262 [Last accessed on 2024 May 19].
5. Yasir M, Das S, Kharya M. The phytochemical and pharmacological profile of Persea americana Mill. Pharmacogn Rev 2010;4:77-84.[CrossRef]
6. Boadu A, Singh S, Karpoormath R, Nlooto M. Review on ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical constituents and pharmacological evidence on leaf extract of Persea americanaand Vernonia amygdalinaof the African continent - a review. Indian Drugs 2019;56:7-24.[CrossRef]
7. López-Guzmán G, Medina-Torres R, Guillén-Andrade H, Ramírez-Guerrero LG, Juárez-López P, Ruelas-Hernández PG. Morphological characterization in native genotypes of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) tropical climate in Nayarit, Mexico. Rev Mex Cien Agríc 2015;6:2157-63.
8. Hürkul MM, Sarlaltin SY, Köroglu A, Çoban T. In vitro inhibitory potential of avocado fruits, Persea americana (Lauraceae) against oxidation, inflammation and key enzymes linked to skin diseases. Rev Biol Trop 2021;69:472-81.
9. Gálvez-Cendegui L, Peñaloza P, Oyanedel E, Castro M. Storage, size and vigor of 'Esther'avocado seeds (Persea americana Mill.). Cien Inv Agr 2017;44:94-9.
10. Dabas D, Shegog RM, Ziegler GR, Lambert JD. Avocado (Persea americana) seed as a source of bioactive phytochemicals. Curr Pharm Des 2013;19:6133-40.[CrossRef]
11. Bhuyan DJ, Alsherbiny MA, Perera S, Low M, Basu A, Devi OA, et al. The odyssey of bioactive compounds in avocado (Persea americana) and their health benefits. Antioxidants (Basel) 2019;8:426.[CrossRef]
12. Bonilla-Loaiza AM, Váquiro-Herrera HA, Solanilla-Duque JF. Physicochemical and bioactive properties of avocado (Persea americana Mill. . Lorena). Int J Food Eng 2022;18:303-15.[CrossRef]
13. Ong ES, Low J, Tan JC, Foo SY, Leo CH. Valorization of avocado seeds with antioxidant capacity using pressurized hot water extraction. Sci Rep 2022;12:13036.[CrossRef]
14. Ojo OA, Amanze JC, Oni AI, Grant S, Iyobhebhe M, Elebiyo TC, et al. Antidiabetic activity of avocado seeds (Persea americana Mill.) diabetic rats via activation of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Sci Rep 2022;12:2919.[CrossRef]
15. Dvash L, Afik O, Shafir S, Schaffer A, Yeselson Y, Dag A, et al. Determination by near-infrared spectroscopy of perseitol used as a marker for the botanical origin of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) honey. J Agric Food Chem 2002;50:5283-7.[CrossRef]
16. Donnarumma G, Buommino E, Baroni A, Auricchio L, Filippis AD, Cozza V, et al. Effects of AV119, a natural sugar from avocado, on Malassezia furfur invasiveness and on the expression of HBD-2 and cytokines in human keratinocytes. Exp Dermatol 2007;16:912-9.[CrossRef]
17. Donnarumma G, Paoletti I, Buommino E, Fusco A, Baudouin C, Msika P, et al. AV119, a natural sugar from avocado gratissima, modulates the LPS-induced proinflammatory response in human keratinocytes. Inflammation 2011;34:568-75.[CrossRef]
18. Cortés-Herrera C, Chacón A, Artavia G, Granados-Chinchilla F. Análisis LC/MS simultáneo de carotenoides y vitaminas liposolubles en paltas costarricenses (Persea americana Mill.). Molecules 2019;24:4517.[CrossRef]
19. Shapira O, Chernoivanov S, Neuberger I, Levy S, Rubinovich L. Physiological characterization of young 'Hass'avocado plant leaves following exposure to high temperatures and low light intensity. Plants 2021;10:1562.[CrossRef]
20. Mahomoodally MF, Mooroteea K. A comparative ethno-religious study of traditionally used medicinal plants employed in the management of cardiovascular diseases. J Herb Med 2021;25:100417.[CrossRef]
21. Taibi K, Abderrahim LA, Boussaid M, Taibi F, Achir M, Souana K, et al. Unraveling the ethnopharmacological potential of medicinal plants used in Algerian traditional medicine for urinary diseases. Eur J Integr Med 2021;44:101339.[CrossRef]
22. Castañeda R, Cáceres A, Velásquez D, Rodríguez C, Morales D, Castillo A. Medicinal plants used in traditional Mayan medicine for the treatment of central nervous system disorders:An overview. J Ethnopharmacol 2022;283:114746.[CrossRef]
23. Geck MS, Lecca D, Marchese G, Casu L, Leonti M. Ethnomedicine and neuropsychopharmacology in Mesoamerica. J Ethnopharmacol 2021;278:114243.[CrossRef]
24. Iyamah PC, Idu M. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants used in the treatment of malaria in Southern Nigeria. J Ethnopharmacol 2015;173:287-302.[CrossRef]
25. Sargin SA. Plants used against obesity in Turkish folk medicine:A review. J Ethnopharmacol 2021;270:113841.
26. Ajjoun M, Kharchoufa L, Merrouni IA, Elachouri M. Moroccan medicinal plants traditionally used for the treatment of skin diseases:From ethnobotany to clinical trials. J Ethnopharmacol 2022;297:115532.[CrossRef]
27. Mwinga JL, Makhaga NS, Aremu AO, Otang-Mbeng W. Botanicals used for cosmetic purposes by Xhosa women in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. S Afr J Bot 2019;126:4-10.[CrossRef]
28. El Hajj M, Sitali DC, Vwalika B, Holst L. Herbal medicine use among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Lusaka Province, Zambia:A cross-sectional, multicentre study. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2020;40:101218.[CrossRef]
29. Shi D, Xu W, Balan P, Wong M, Chen W, Popovich DG. In vitro antioxidant properties of New Zealand hass avocado byproduct (peel and seed) fractions. ACS Food Sci Technol 2021;1:579-87.[CrossRef]
30. Younis IY, Hifnawy MS, El-Hawary SS, El Bishbishy MH, Elateek SY. Bioactive metabolites of Hass and reed avocados targeting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin-like X via molecular modeling and cytotoxicity assessments. Nat Prod Res 2021;35:6040-4.[CrossRef]
31. Mardigan LP, Santos VJ, Silva PT, Visentainer JV, Gomes ST, Matsushita M. Investigation of bioactive compounds from various avocado varieties (Persea americana Miller). Food Sci Technol 2018;39:15-21.[CrossRef]
32. Krumreich FD, Borges CD, Mendonça CR, Jansen-Alves C, Zambiazi RC. Bioactive compounds and quality parameters of avocado oil obtained by different processes. Food Chem 2018;257:376-81.[CrossRef]
33. Corrales-García JE, del Rosario García-Mateos M, Martínez-López E, Barrientos-Priego AF, Ybarra-Moncada MC, Ibarra-Estrada E, et al. Anthocyanin and oil contents, fatty acids profiles and antioxidant activity of Mexican landrace avocado fruits. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2019;74:210-5.[CrossRef]
34. Amado DA, Detoni AM, De Carvalho SL, Torquato AS, Martin CA, Tiuman TS, et al. Tocopherol and fatty acids content and proximal composition of four avocado cultivars (Persea americana Mill). Acta Aliment 2019;48:47-55.[CrossRef]
35. Do DT, Bui TH, Phan DT. Persea americana Mill seed extracts:Understanding insights into the antioxidant and antityrosinase activities and effects on preserving qualities of whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaus vannamei) during refrigerated storage. Food Chem 2022;373:131469.[CrossRef]
36. Alkhalaf MI, Alansari WS, Ibrahim EA, El-Halwagy ME. Anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities of avocado (Persea americana) fruit and seed extract. J King Saud Univ Sci 2019;31:1358-62.[CrossRef]
37. Siol M, Sadowska A. Chemical composition, physicochemical and bioactive properties of avocado (Persea americana) seed and its potential use in functional food design. Agriculture 2023;13:316.[CrossRef]
38. Martins SH, Pontes KV, Fialho RL, Fakhouri FM. Extraction and characterization of the starch present in the avocado seed (Persea americana Mill) for future applications. J Agric Food Res 2022;8:100303.[CrossRef]
39. Nasri C, Halabi Y, Aghzaf S, Nounah I, Brunel M, Oubihi A, et al. Seven Persea americana varieties essential oils comparison:Chemical composition, toxicity, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 2022;44:102468.[CrossRef]
40. Figueroa JG, Borrás-Linares I, Lozano-Sánchez J, Segura-Carretero A. Comprehensive identification of bioactive compounds of avocado peel by liquid chromatography coupled to ultra-high-definition accurate-mass Q-TOF. Food Chem 2018;245:707-16.[CrossRef]
41. Miñón-Hernández D, Dorantes-Alvarez L, Guzmán-Gerónimo RI, Alvarado-Olivarez M, Herrera-Meza S, Santiago-Roque I, et al. Avocado creole peel ameliorates metabolic alterations caused by a high sucrose fat diet in a Wistar Rats model. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2021;76:12-9.[CrossRef]
42. Asaolu MF, Asaolu SS, Fakunle JB, Emman-Okon BO, Ajayi EO, Togun RA. Evaluation of in-vitro antioxidant activities of methanol extracts of Persea americana and Cnidoscolus aconitifolius. Pak J Nutr 2010;9:1074-7.[CrossRef]
43. Oise IE, Adesina AB. Preliminary phytochemical and comparative growth inhibitory assay of the aqueous and chloroform fractions of the methanol extract of the leaves of Persea americana Mill Lauraceae. Hypertension 2013;6:9.
44. Uzor PF, Onyishi CK, Omaliko AP, Nworgu SA, Ugwu OH, Nwodo NJ. Study of the antimalarial activity of the leaf extracts and fractions of Persea americana and Dacryodes edulis and their HPLC analysis. Evid Based Complement Altern Med 2021;2021:5218294.[CrossRef]
45. Elosaily AH, Mahrous EA, Salama AA, Salama AM, Elzalabani SM. Composition, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities of avocado oil obtained from Duke and Fuerte cultivars. J Am Oil Chem Soc 2022;99:181-6.[CrossRef]
46. Bayomy HM, Alamri ES, Rozan MA. Effect of roasting Hass avocado kernels on nutritional value and volatile compounds. Processes 2023;11:377.[CrossRef]
47. Alagbaoso CA, Osakwe OS, Tokunbo II. Changes in proximate and phytochemical compositions of Persea americana Mill. (Avocado pear) seeds associated with ripening. J Med Biomed Res 2017;16:28-34.
48. Rahman N, Tangkas IM, Rakhman A, Sabang SM, Bohari B. Effect of Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) extract on the diabetic male white rats:Preclinical study. Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2022;10:415-8.[CrossRef]
49. Giovannini P, Howes MJ, Edwards SE. Medicinal plants used in the traditional management of diabetes and its sequelae in Central America:A review. J Ethnopharmacol 2016;184:58-71.[CrossRef]
50. Ahmed N, Tcheng M, Roma A, Buraczynski M, Jayanth P, Rea K, et al. Avocatin B protects against lipotoxicity and improves insulin sensitivity in diet-induced obesity. Mol Nutr Food Res 2019;63:1900688.[CrossRef]
51. Okputu IJ, Ironya O, Obi-Abang M, Egbung GE. Nephroprotective potential of Persea americana (Avocado) ethanol-water seed extract and glucovance in streptozotocin-induced Wistar rats. Trop J Nat Prod Res 2022;6:244-55.
52. Osukoya OA, Oyinloye BE, Ajiboye BO, Olokode KA, Adeola HA. Nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory potential of aqueous extract from Persea americana seeds against cadmium-induced nephrotoxicity in Wistar rats. Biometals 2021;34:1141-53.[CrossRef]
53. Wong K, Raffray M, Roy-Fleming A, Blunden S, Brazeau AS. Ketogenic diet as a normal way of eating in adults with type 1 and type 2 diabetes:A qualitative study. Can J Diabetes 2021;45:[CrossRef]
54. Athaydes BR, Alves GM, de Assis AL, Gomes JV, Rodrigues RP, Campagnaro BP, et al. Avocado seeds (Persea americana Mill.) indomethacin-induced gastric ulcer in mice. Food Res Int 2019;119:51-760.[CrossRef]
55. Oyemitan IA, Ojo E, Oyedeji AO. Neuropharmacological profile of ethanolic dried seed extract of Persea americana in mice. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol 2016;10:480-92.[CrossRef]
56. Motawi TM, William MM, Nooh MM, Abd-Elgawad HM. Amelioration of cyclophosphamide toxicity via modulation of metabolizing enzymes by avocado (Persea americana) extract. J Pharm Pharmacol 2022;74:367-76.[CrossRef]
57. De Oliveira EC, Dalmau LM, de Almeida Costa CA, de Almeida Junior LD, Ballard CR, Maróstica Junior MR, et al. Dietary intervention with avocado (Persea americana Mill.) intestinal inflammation induced by TNBS in rats. Inflammopharmacology 2023;31:485-98.[CrossRef]
58. Amis RT, Ginting CN, Ferdinand S, Ikhtiari R. Anti-hyperuricemia of Avocado Leaves Ethanol Extract in Potassium Oxonate Induced-rats. In:IEEE International Conference on Health, Instrumentation and Measurement, and Natural Sciences (InHeNce). New Jersey:IEEE;2021. 1-5.[CrossRef]
59. Silva AP, Oliveira L, Linhares L, De Castro D, De Cássia R. Mechanisms involved in the cardioprotective effect of avocado consumption:A systematic review. Int J Food Prop 2017;20: 1675-85.
60. Olavarría VV, Campodónico P, Vollrath V, von Geldern P, Velásquez C, Pavez P. Effects of an Avocado-based Mediterranean diet on serum lipids for secondary prevention after ischemic stroke trial (ADD-SPISE):Study protocol. Medicine (Baltimore) 2021;100:26425.[CrossRef]
61. Nogueira-de-Almeida CA, Ued FV, Almeida CC, Almeida AC, Ciampo LA, Ferraz IS, et al. Nutritional profile and benefits of avocado oil (Persea americana):An integrative review. Braz J Food Technol 2018;21:2017214.
62. Rofida S. Tlc-densitometry profile of Annona squamosa and Persea americana as the raw material for antihyperlipidemic medicine. Iran J Pharm Sci 2020;16:1-8.
63. Castro-López C, Bautista-Hernández I, González-Hernández MD, Martínez-Ávila GC, Rojas R, Gutiérrez-Díez A, et al. Polyphenolic profile and antioxidant activity of leaf purified hydroalcoholic extracts from seven Mexican Persea Americana cultivars. Molecules 2019;24:173.
64. Bonilla-Porras AR, Salazar-Ospina A, Jimenez-Del-Rio M, Pereañez-Jimenez A, Velez-Pardo C. Pro-apoptotic effect of Persea americana var. Hass (avocado) on Jurkat lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Pharm Biol 2020;52:458-65.[CrossRef]
65. Chia TW, Dykes GA. Antimicrobial activity of crude epicarp and seed extracts from mature avocado fruit (Persea americana) of three cultivars. Pharm Biol 2010;48:753-6.[CrossRef]
66. Louis ML, Pushpa V, Balakrishna K, Ganesan P. Mosquito larvicidal activity of Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit peel methanolic extract against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles stephensi. S Afr J Bot 2020;133:1-4.[CrossRef]
67. Dias PG, Sajiwanie JW, Rathnayaka RM. Chemical composition, physicochemical and technological properties of selected fruit peels as a potential food source. Int J Fruit Sci 2020;20(Suppl 2):S240-51.[CrossRef]